From
time immemorial the working tools of an operative freemason
have
been used as symbols for moral instruction.
A
craft originally was an organisation of workers who had a range of skills in a
particular trade or vocation. Craft comes from the Old English craeft, derived from the Old Saxon and Old
German kraft, which originally meant strength
and skill. Its adjective craeftig
meant crafty and signified dexterous
or expert. The sinister
aspects of crafty,
which include cunning from the Old English cunnan meaning to
know, are modern usages of the word that were not in vogue when the
crafts flourished in medieval times. This change in the usage of cunning
is reflected in different versions of I Kings 7:14 of the Bible, which records
that Hiram King of Tyre sent Hiram Abif to Jerusalem to assist King Solomon in
the construction of the temple. In the Authorised
Version issued by King James VI in 1611, Hiram Abif is described as
“filled with wisdom and
understanding and cunning to work all works in brass”. In the New
English Bible issued in 1970 Hiram Abif is called “a
man of great skill and ingenuity, versed in every kind of craftsmanship in
bronze”.
Family
peace guilds, called frith,
existed in London by about the middle of the tenth century. The first merchant
guild is believed to have originated in Dover in about the middle of the
eleventh century, when it seems that the first weaver guilds also were
established. In medieval times the workers in many crafts established fraternal
associations for the mutual assistance of their members, which they called gilds
and later guilds, derived from the Old English gield
that was a synonym of the Old Norman gildi signifying a company self supported by
subscriptions. There is ample evidence that the craft guilds were well
established in Britain by about 1135, during the reign of Henry I.
Although
the craft guilds came into existence to safeguard the interests of skilled
workers in the various trades, they also were religious fraternities whose
members were required to attend church frequently and also on a regular basis.
Under the protection of their guild and with the assistance of its members, many
families rose from serfdom to become employers within a few generations. The
operative masons who erected ecclesiastical structures in medieval times became
the largest and most effectively organised of all the craft guilds and were soon
called “the free masons”, or more familiarly as “the craft”. The rough
masons, wallers, slaters, paviors, plaisterers, bricklayers, carpenters, bronze
founders, iron workers, gold smiths and white smiths, all of whom worked closely
with the freemasons on the more important building works, often formed their own
craft guilds in the larger centres.
Although
the members of most crafts could find work in the vicinity of their homes, many
members of the craft of freemasonry frequently had to travel long distances to
find work and establish new project sites. This undoubtedly was a significant
factor leading to the establishment of lodges. In operative practice the lodge originally signified
the place of work, especially the stone yard. The English word was derived from
the Old French loge
meaning an arbour, which was adopted
into Middle English to mean a stall
as in modern theatres. The earliest known reference to a lodge
as a building occurs in the accounts of the Vale Royal Abbey in 1277, when logias and mansiones
were erected for the workers because the site of the abbey was some distance
from habitation. Logias was an Old French verb and mansiones a Middle Latin
noun, which respectively signify to
lodge and a household, reflecting the
influence of French and Latin on the English language. In England old operative
documents often refer to lodges
as places of residence, but sometimes they also were repositories for tools and
implements, as at the York Minster in 1399. A body of masons also became known
as a lodge by association,
almost certainly in medieval times. Perhaps unexpectedly the first known
references in this context are to be found in relation to operative practice in
Scotland, in the minutes of the Aitchison's Haven Lodge in 1598 and also in the Schaw
Statutes of 1598 and 1599.
In
medieval times many of the lodges must have worked independently, because travel
was very difficult and time consuming. Even so, there is evidence that annual
assemblages of free masons were taking place during the 1300s, which were the
gatherings that Henry VI sought to prohibit by the Statutes of 1436 and 1437.
The guild system proved to be highly successful until it was devastated by the
Reformation of 1530-1560, when Henry VIII confiscated most of the guilds’
possessions. Henry VIII’s son, Edward VI, completed the disendowment of
the guilds by an Act of 1547 under which any remaining guild funds that had been
dedicated for religious purposes were confiscated, as also were the funds of all
other religious fraternities. The guilds that survived the Reformation became
the Livery Companies of the City of London, of which the “Fellowship of Masons”
probably is the best known. It came into existence very early in the 1300s
and was called “The Worshipful Company of Ffree Masons of the City of London”
from the grant of its arms in 1471 until some time in the 1500s. In 1655,
during the aftermath of the Reformation, it was renamed "The Company of Masons".
In
operative lodges the supervisory officers included foremen, intendents,
superintendents, wardens and deacons, who were responsible for control of the
various sections of work. All were fully qualified craftsmen who had been
promoted through the ranks when they were sufficiently experienced and had
demonstrated the skill and ability required to undertake progressively higher
levels of responsibility. The titles and duties of the supervisory officers were
not standardised. Medieval guilds in England had wardens of the craft and
wardens of the mystery. In medieval lodges in Scotland the chief officers
frequently were deacons, often supported by wardens, although the two offices
sometimes merged into one or the warden was the chief officer. In some
assemblages the freemasons worked under the control of deacons, although wardens
were responsible for overall supervision of the lodges. By the second half of
the seventeenth century, Master Masons began to rule operative lodges in
Scotland and had Wardens as their deputies. Evidence suggests that English
speculative lodges had Wardens in the seventeenth century and that Deacons were
later introduced following the practice in Scotland.
In
medieval times in England, apprentices in freemasonry were recruited from
suitable boys, usually aged between twelve and fifteen years. A youngster
learning the mason trade was indentured as an apprentice in an operative lodge.
His training nominally was for a period of seven years. The earliest known
regulation relating to apprenticeships in London dates from about 1230, but it
was not enforced strictly for many years. Almost a century had passed before
apprenticeship was in general use, at about the time the Fellowship of
Masons was formed in London. A boy seeking engagement and considered to
be acceptable by the members of the lodge was required to swear that he would be
obedient and learn the craft. He was then bound over as an Indentured Apprentice
to a senior freemason, often the Master Mason himself, who was the
apprentice’s master for his period of indentureship. Whilst in training the
apprentice lived with his master and gave him implicit obedience in all things,
with little recompense other than food, clothing and lodging. His place in lodge
life was equally subordinate.
In
England, an apprentice who had a good record was tested in the stoneyard for
practical proficiency at the end of his indentureship. If he proved himself to
be capable and passed an examination in the lodge, the members voted on his
admission into full membership. When accepted, he was regarded as a fully
qualified tradesman. However, as he had not yet gained sufficient experience to
take charge of construction, he would be required to work under the guidance of
expert craftsmen for as long as seven more years, although the time varied
considerably. When he had proved his ability to take charge of building work, he
was accepted as a Fellow and was free to engage subordinate labour and to carry
out work in his own right. The title of Fellow is first found in English
documents towards the end of the fourteenth century, when it clearly signified
membership of a fraternity, but did not appear to indicate a specific grade of
proficiency.
Records
in Scotland dating from the fifteenth century show that youths were apprenticed
to monasteries for periods varying from five to nine years. When an apprentice
mason had satisfactorily completed his training in the stoneyard he was "entered" in the
books of his lodge. This feature of Scottish operative practice dates from 1598
and probably earlier. Entered Apprentices in Scottish lodges were put in charge
of small groups of junior apprentices, although they were still required to work
for a few more years under the overall guidance of experienced masons to develop
their proficiency and leadership. In Edinburgh the Trade Regulations,
incorporated in the Seal
of Cause of 1475, provided for an apprentice to serve a term of seven
years, after which he was to be examined by four searchers. When found to be proficient he became a Fellow of the
Craft and was entitled to all the privileges of the membership of his lodge. In
operative lodges Fellows of the Craft were fully qualified masters of their
craft in all its aspects. They were allowed to engage labour and to take charge
of building work. In operative freemasonry the title of Master
Mason usually referred to the master tradesman who was in charge of a
building project, often the proprietor of the lodge engaged to carry out the
work.
It
is of interest to know that the word fellow
is related to the Middle English word fee,
which signified a fief
or payment, derived from the Old High German fihu or fehu.
It has an important cognate in the Scandinavian group of Germanic languages, the
Old Norman felag, which signified a placing together of property and hence
a partnership. From this usage came the Old English feolaga, then the Middle
English felaghe, which later became felawe,
whence the English fellow,
signifying an associate, a companion and an equal. Thus a Fellow of the Craft
was someone who held membership in his craft, for which a fee usually was
payable, in consequence of which he accepted the duties of his position and
enjoyed the privileges of membership. Nowadays the title Fellow usually applies to
the highest grade of membership in a scientific or technical institution, but it
also is used in universities to designate the holder of a Fellowship.
Records
from the beginning of the 1500s indicate that Scottish and Irish operative
lodges accepted persons of
stature as honorary members, even though they were neither operative masons nor
craftsmen in any other trade. However, this custom does not seem to have begun
in England for another hundred years, when the "Fellowship of Masons"
in London established an inner fraternity known as the Acception, whose members
were not necessarily members of the Company.
Although seven members of the Company
were enrolled in the Acception
during 1620 and 1621, the King's Master Mason, who also was the Master
of the Company
in 1633, was not enrolled in the Acception
until 1639! The Company's
records show that several non-operatives
were enrolled in the Acception
from 1663 onwards. The English craft guilds were decimated by the Reformation of
1530-1560, after which period any lodges of operative freemasons that were
established were only set up for the duration of specific projects. With the
exception of an Assemblage at York, there are no records of English lodges
transforming from operative to speculative practice as they did in Scotland,
although many operative freemasons in England were involved in the establishment
of speculative lodges. By contrast with England and Ireland, most operative
lodges in Scotland continued well into the 1750s, some of them much longer, many
of which become speculative lodges almost as a matter of course.
The
titles Entered Apprentice and Fellowcraft
were not used in English lodges until the 1700s, when both of these speculative
grades were adopted from operative freemasonry in Scotland. They became firmly
established in English speculative freemasonry when they appeared in Dr James
Anderson's Constitutions of 1723. The first known use of these titles in
England was by the very old operative Assembly of Masons at York,
called the York Grand Lodge, which was independent from the Grand Lodges
formed in London. Unfortunately the earliest surviving minutes of the York
Grand Lodge date from 1712, when it already was in the process of
becoming speculative. Of particular interest are the minutes of its meeting held
in 1725 on the Festival of St John, which record that "E.P.
(Entered 'Prentice), F.C. and M.M. attended", clearly indicating
that these three degrees were being worked at that time. Prior to that meeting
the Master was usually referred to as the President, but at that meeting he
became the Grand Master, when a Deputy Grand Master and Grand Wardens also were
elected. It has been established beyond doubt that admissions to the grades of
Apprentice and Fellow were of an esoteric nature at least as early as 1598. In
speculative craft freemasonry the degree
of Master Mason is similar to the ceremonial of the Ancient Drama in operative
freemasonry that has been enacted annually from time immemorial.
Because
so much of its work was carried out in an ecclesiastical environment, the craft
of freemasons was subject to a stronger religious influence than any of the
other craft guilds. This no doubt explains why the old operative ceremonies were
based on stories from the scriptures and included extensive moral instruction.
In this respect the Old
Charges were a key element in the induction of candidates into English
operative lodges, providing a foundation for the ethical teaching carried out in
the weekly meetings. An essential part of the Old Charges was the
traditional history, in which the concurrent development of civilisation and
masonry was recounted on the basis of legends derived from biblical history,
supplemented by allegorical anecdotes of contemporaneous events. Erudite
researchers have expressed the opinion that a learned monk, who was well
acquainted with the usages and customs of the mason's trade, probably prepared
the Old
Charges. Those researchers are of the opinion that the subject matter of
the Old Charges is much older than the earliest manuscript presently
known, which is the Regius
MS dating from about 1390. It is possible that much of the original
material relating to the conduct of a freemason may have been derived from the
earliest trade ordinances that are known to have come into effect near the end
of the eleventh century, although no copies have yet been discovered. No other
medieval craft guild or religious fraternity is known to have possessed a
document similar to the Old Charges.
Although
the traditional history and charges were not identical everywhere, they had a
consistent theme and were regarded by the medieval operative freemasons in
England as the foundation of their craft in all ages and in all places.
Authentic copies of those Old
Charges constituted the authority under which operative lodges held
their meetings, centuries before warrants were issued by the early Grand Lodges.
An interesting aspect of the traditional history is the allegorical account that
Charles Martel (688-741), known as Charles the Hammer in France, established
freemasonry in England. This account might have a factual basis. Masonic legends
in France include the anomalous assertion that Charles Martel learnt the craft
of freemasonry from a curious mason named Naymus Graecus, who had
been present at the erection of Solomon's temple.
Scotland
had a close association with France, which began when the Irish apostle and
Benedictine monk St Columba (521-597) established the first monastery at Iona.
St Columba converted the northern Picts to Christianity and also worked in
Brittany and the Vosges district of France, where he founded the great abbey at
Luxeuil. Having regard to this religious association, which was supported by a
significant inflow of operative freemasons from France to Scotland, it perhaps
is surprising that Scottish operative lodges did not have their own traditional
histories. The few Old
Charges possessed by Scottish lodges of operative freemasons obviously
were copied from English sources and date from about the time when the Seal
of Cause was issued in Edinburgh in 1475. Likewise there is no evidence
of Irish operative lodges having a traditional history similar to that of their
English counterparts, but there is ample evidence that they used their working
tools as symbols for moral instruction early in the sixteenth century.
Operative
lodges traditionally met at noon on the sixth day of each week, when they
conducted their business, inducted their candidates and imparted moral
instruction. That time of meeting is the basis of the paradoxical answer to one
of the questions put to a speculative Entered Apprentice during his examination,
to he replies “when the sun was at its meridian”. Operative masons were
obligated under oath and were subject to penalties that were customary for the
period. In operative lodges the candidate in each of the several degrees was
told that he represented a particular stone required in the construction of
Solomon's temple. The ceremonial and its inherent religious components were
woven around the preparation, testing and placement of that stone in the temple,
symbolising the erection of a spiritual temple.
The
perambulations of the candidate around the lodge room also related to the
erection of the temple. Candidates were taught by charge and catechism and were
required to learn much by rote. From the earliest times, one of the most
important components of the ritual was a moral interpretation of the many
working tools of a mason. This is not surprising, because the names of so many
of the tools express a moral quality without requiring any further definition.
The working tools presented in the speculative degrees were not the only ones
used by the Apprentice, Fellow and Master in operative lodges, but were chosen
to illustrate the teachings of the speculative degree.
The
Fabric
Rolls of York Minster of 1360 list a kevel, sometimes
incorrectly called a keevil, which was similar to a very large
gavel and was the stone-axe used to break and roughly shape stones in the
quarry. The name was used in Scotland and northern England until the early
1800s, but its origin is obscure, though probably deriving from the Old Norman
French keville, which means a key, from which a clavicle
also is descended. The Fabric
Rolls of York Minster provide a detailed inventory of the tools stored
in the masons' lodge at the end of the year 1399, including stone-axes, iron
chisels, mallets, tracing boards, a hatchet, a big gavel, a compass and a host
of other tools.
Some
of the less familiar tools listed in early inventories include stone-hammers and
stone-axes in a large variety of shapes and weights; setting-hammers with hollow
heads for the hard stone hewers; scabbling hammers for the rough layers; various
hammer-axes, brick-axes, pickaxes and mattocks; chisels, puncheons and augers;
crowbars, levers and wedges; and mallets, mauls and trowels. The principal
wooden tools used by operative
freemasons were the straight-edges, rules, squares, levels, plumb-rules and
heavy setting mauls required to ensure that the stones were placed and set to
the correct lines and levels during the erection of the structure. They were
wooden to avoid marking the dressed and polished
stones. Thus we read in I Kings 6:5 of the New
English Bible that:
"no hammer or axe or
any iron tool whatever was heard in the house while it was being built".
The
three symbolic working tools of an Entered Apprentice in a speculative lodge are
not the same as those presented to his operative counterpart when first
indentured. The tools presented to an Indentured Apprentice in an operative
lodge were the metal straight edge, the maul or mallet and the chisel, which
were the first tools he would learn to use. As the metal straight edge is used
as a guide for the chisel when dressing a stone, so it constantly reminds the
apprentice that he is required to maintain a straight and undeviating course of
action in his work and in his dealings with others. As the maul or mallet
applies the driving force to the chisel, so it reminds the apprentice that it is
his duty to work hard and diligently in the stoneyard and also in his private
life. As the keen edge of the chisel is accurately shaped to cut the stone, it
impresses upon the apprentice's mind that knowledge is essential in all
activities. The three tools in combination remind the apprentice that all
difficulties can be overcome if the correct approach is used with knowledge,
hard work and perseverance.
During
the course of his indentureship, the apprentice mason learned to use many more
working tools, including such implements as axes, bevels and squares, callipers
and compasses, gauges of various shapes, hammers, rasps and scrapers - the range
was limited only by the sizes and shapes of the stones he was required to cut
and dress. The twenty-four inch gauge that is presented to a speculative
Entered Apprentice nowadays was introduced to impress upon the candidate the
importance of allocating his time properly, so that it would be well spent. In
operative freemasonry this aspect of an apprentice's duties were impressed upon
him throughout his training, by the strictest adherence to his daily schedule of
practical instruction, his weekly attendance in lodge and his regular
participation in the religious services of the institution for which his lodge
was working.
The
maul or mallet, which is also called a mell in northern England
and Scotland, must not be confused with the heavy setting maul, which is also
known as a beetle or sledge hammer. The beetle is a very heavy wooden mallet
with a long handle used for driving wedges, crushing broken stone for a macadam
road surface, or beating down paving stones. The beetle derives its name from
two of the Old English words meaning to beat, respectively
bietl and beatan. A heavy wooden
truncheon is also called a beetle. The speculative ritualists replaced the maul
with a common gavel, which in fact is never used with a chisel. Moreover, as the
gavel is an emblem of power in the sense of government, it is not a very
appropriate symbol with respect to the duties of an apprentice. The similarly
shaped implements used in operative masonry was the much larger kevel and the
stone-axe which had a steel cutting edge, with which the quarrymen broke and
roughly shaped the stones. As the stone-axe symbolises the force of conscience,
the early speculative ritualists might have intended the wooden gavel to be a
miniature representation of it.
It
is possible that later ritualists may have inadvertently called the beetle a
gavel, which is a name of American origin from the nineteenth century that
refers to its gable-like shape. Unlike their speculative counterparts, the
master and wardens in an operative lodge did not use gavels, but carried
truncheons, which have been staffs of authority since early medieval times. The
master also had a maul as a symbol of his authority and his driving force in the
lodge. In some Irish lodges the master's emblem of authority was a stone-axe or
hammer and the wardens carried truncheons. In some Scottish and American lodges
of speculative craft freemasonry the operative custom of using the maul as an
emblem of the master's authority is still in practice. In Scottish lodges the
senior deacon's jewel is a maul and the junior deacon's jewel is a trowel, which
indicate that the respective responsibilities of the senior and junior deacons
are to exercise control in the work and to maintain harmony.
Of
the several wooden working tools used in operative lodges, the square, the level
and the plumb rule were appropriated to the Fellowcraft in speculative craft
freemasonry. This is logical because his operative counterpart was a mason of
superior status who was directly responsible for ensuring that the building was
erected in strict conformity with the working plans. It should be noted that
operative masons used three different squares, each for a specific purpose and
each having an important though somewhat different symbolical meaning. Each of
these squares has an important place in the speculative ritual, although they
are not differentiated in the ritual so that the subtle differences of meaning
that are explained in the charges might be missed by anyone who is not familiar
with operative practice. Attention will be drawn to these differences when
discussing the symbolism of the square. The working tools of a Fellowcraft
freemason in a speculative lodge are only miniature representations of the
operative tools and they are made of metal as a matter of convenience, so that
it may be difficult to envisage how they would have been used in building
construction.
The
levels and plumb rules used by operative freemasons were closely related,
because each utilised a line and plumb bob to determine the vertical plane and
hence the correct attitude of the implement. In their simplest form, as used
continuously in operative freemasonry at least from the times of ancient Egypt,
the frames of both implements were constructed from stout wooden staves that
could be dressed perfectly and would not warp or twist. The level generally was
in the shape of an equilateral triangle constructed from staves about two cubits
or a little over a metre long, with the line and plumb bob suspended from one
apex. When the plumb line hung vertically and the point of the plumb bisected
the base, the base was horizontal and could be used either to lay levels, or to
try and if necessary to adjust horizontals. From the use of the level, in
conjunction with the beetle or heavy setting maul, the expression "setting to a dead
level" is derived. The plumb rule usually was a stave about two
cubits long, with its long edges dressed parallel to each other. A line and
plumb bob were suspended from the upper extremity of the stave on its centre
line to determine its verticality. Either long edge of the stave could be used
to set verticals, or to try and if necessary to adjust upright members to the
vertical plane.
As
the apprentice in operative lodges learnt to use a wide range of tools during
his period of training, so also did the fellow during his first few years whilst
under the supervision of more expert craftsmen. In addition to the square, level
and plumb-rule, he learnt to use the wooden straight-edge, plumb lines or
plummets, string lines and skirrets, trowels and the Pythagorean square composed
of three graduated rods in the ratios of 3:4:5. String lines and
skirrets are used to set out lines, but the wooden straight edge is the
implement used to test a course of stones for straightness along a line or a
vertical series of courses for the uniformity of its surface. A plumb line or
plummet is used to plumb a point in a vertical plane and three plumb lines are
used together to line up intermediate points in straight lines over long
distances, but the plumb-rule is the implement used to check the stones for
verticality in successive courses. The Pythagorean square is used when setting
out a building, but not when checking right angles during erection, for which
purpose the gallows square is the correct implement. The working tools of a
fellow thus fall into two distinct groups, one for use when setting out a
building and the other for use during its erection.
Most
Fellows could set out a building if given the location of a corner
of the building and one of the building lines commencing from that corner.
However, most stately edifices were required to be set out from a given centre
point, which only the most capable craftsmen were competent to perform. Thus it
usually was only the master of the lodge, the Master Mason
himself, who set out the building with the assistance of some of his most
experienced craftsmen. For this purpose he utilised plumb lines, string lines,
skirrets and the Pythagorean square. In the northern hemisphere the Pole Star
can be sighted to determine the north-south axis. This is done by sighting the
Pole Star through a plumb line set up over the required centre point, then
lining in two other plumb lines at or beyond each of the required northern and
southern extremities. In both hemispheres the north-south axis can be
established by the bisecting an equidistant transition of the sun from the
eastern quarter to the western quarter, sighted through a plumb line set up over
the required centre point. When the north-south axis has been established it is
marked with a string line, so that the east-west axis and the required diagonals
can then be established using a Pythagorean square in conjunction with string
lines drawn from a skirret at the centre. There are paintings at Thebes in
Egypt, dating from 3000 BCE or earlier, which show masons using a stretched
cord to draw a line in this fashion.
In
medieval times the Master Mason usually would be provided with
only a description of the required sizes and layout of a building he was
required to construct. More often than not the details would be developed
progressively with input from the owner over many years of construction. Thus
another very important duty of the Master Mason was to prepare
layout plans of the building for the owner's approval, from which the Master
Mason would prepare detailed designs and working drawings. The Master
Mason would also prepare detailed drawings for the most important
components of the structure, even to the extent of detailing the designs of the
windows and the symbolic decorations incorporated in most ecclesiastical
buildings. As the pencil and compasses were essential implements used by the Master
Mason of an operative lodge when preparing designs and drawings, it was
appropriate to include them with the skirret and line as the working tools of a Master
Mason in a speculative lodge.
In
Zechariah 2:2 in the New
English Bible, when Zechariah saw a man carrying a measuring line he
asked where the man was going and was told:
"To measure Jerusalem
and see what should be its breadth and length".
The
symbolical use of the measuring line in Biblical times is confirmed by a passage
in Jeremiah 31:39 in the New
English Bible, which tells us that:
"The time is coming, says the Lord, when the city shall be rebuilt
in the Lord's honour, from the Tower of Hananel to the Corner Gate. The
measuring line shall then be laid straight out over the hill of Gareb and around
Goath."
The
three types of square used by operative freemasons were the square gauge, the
try square and the gallows square. The square gauge is an enclosed square of the
required inside dimensions to test a cubic ashlar or the cross section of a
running stone. The try square has two arms of equal length that include an angle
of 90°. It is not calibrated to measure lengths along the arms, because it is
only used to test the angle between the two faces of a stone along the arris
where they meet, to ensure that they subtend a right angle. The gallows square
is used to set out right angles and has two arms of unequal length that include
an angle of 90°. Both arms are calibrated on the inside and outside edges to
facilitate the measurement of dimensions when scribing stones for cutting. It is
also used to set out column bases, wall recesses and other details in the ground
plans of structures. The usual sizes of gallows squares used in operative lodges
were a small square in the ratio of 2:3 and having 12" x 18"
arms; a general purpose square in the ratio of 3:4 called a Pythagorean
square and having 18" x 24" arms; and a large square in the
ratio of 2:3 and having 24" x 36" arms, which was
used to check corners and other wall intersections both internally and
externally.
When
admitted for advancement as a Fellowcraft in a speculative craft lodge the
candidate is told that, having been obligated within the square, he is bound to
act on the square to all mankind. This exhortation derives from the operative
practice of requiring the candidate to kneel with both knees bare on an ashlar
stone that was placed within the square gauge. The reason for the change is not
recorded, but the present method of supporting the candidate's elbow within the
angle of a small Pythagorean square was substituted for the operative practice
at about the time when reconciliation between the Antients
and the Moderns
was achieved. The traditional "Square
and Compasses" emblem should incorporate a try square that has not
been calibrated and a similar square should also be used to form the emblem
representing the three great emblematic lights of freemasonry. Because the try
square is used to test the angles of a perfect ashlar stone, it is a universal
emblem of morality and justice that inculcates truthfulness, honesty and a
strict obedience to the law of God's Word. It therefore is rightfully included
in the three great emblematic lights by which we shall be tried as "living stones".
In Isaiah 28:16 of the New
English Bible we read:
"These then are the
words of the Lord God: look, I am laying a stone in Zion, a block of granite, a
precious corner-stone for a firm foundation; he who has faith shall not
waver".
In
Psalm 118:22 we also read that:
"The stone which the
builders rejected has become the chief corner-stone".
The
gallows square, with arms in the 3:4 or Pythagorean ratio, is the traditional
emblem of the Master that has been used by operative freemasons from time
immemorial. It is still used as the Master's emblem by them and by most
Continental freemasons. As the gallows square is used to set out the work, which
is the Master's duty, so it is the most appropriate square to use as the emblem
of the Master's office. For some reason that has not been recorded, but
apparently during the 1830s after Euclid's 47th Proposition was introduced as
the basis of the speculative Past Master's jewel in England, the speculative
Master's emblem was changed to a try square. Perhaps this was a result of the
early speculative ritualists' passion for symmetry.
The
Master's jewel is a symbolic reminder that he is required to rule his lodge
justly and properly, that his conduct must be exemplary and his decisions
impartial. In English speculative freemasonry the Immediate Past Master's jewel
is a miniature illustration of Euclid's 47th Proposition, suspended from a
gallows square with sides 3 units and 4 units long and a hypotenuse 5 units
long. About two thousand years before Euclid developed his 47th Proposition,
which is one of general application, some skilful craftsman in ancient Egypt had
discovered the usefulness of a right angled triangle with sides in the ratios of
3:4:5. Nevertheless the discovery is traditionally attributed to
Pythagoras of Greece, who had studied and worked in Egypt and learnt about the
use of the triangle there. The 3:4:5 ratios are the basis of the
operative freemason's Pythagorean triangle of rods that are used to set out a
structure.
The
jewels of Scottish Masters and Irish Past Masters, as well as of many American
Past Masters, incorporate the try square and compasses combined. This is a
symbolic reminder that, in addition to conducting themselves squarely and taking
impartial decisions, Masters must keep all their actions within due bounds. The
letter G within the square and
compasses is a common decoration on the flap of freemasons' aprons in Scotland
and America, which combines the foregoing symbolism with the following. In
medieval Europe the shape of the gallows square with arms in the ratio of 3:4
was used in ecclesiastical script to represent the capital letter G,
because it was the same shape as Gamma
in Greek. The gallows square, as well as the Greek Gamma
that is equivalent to G
in the Roman alphabet, all stand for God
and represent His great attribute of "Justice". In medieval paintings of the Christian
disciples, the gallows square is often found embroidered on their vestments, as
it is on some priestly robes even to this day. Eminent researchers have stated
that the gallows square was also used in early speculative lodges where the
letter G is used nowadays, thus showing that the square is one of the
most important moral instruments of the craft of freemasonry, while at the same
time representing God in His capacity as the Grand Geometrician of the Universe.
As
a working tool of an operative freemason, the level is used to set all required
points to the same level on a construction site. From this is derived its
symbolic interpretation, which is equality, but such equality is not expressed
in relation to wealth or to poverty in the fiscal sense. The symbolism of the
level is not applied in the secular sense concerning social distinction, civic
responsibility or service to mankind, but is applied in the moral sphere with
reference to the internal rather than the external qualifications of a human
being. The level alludes to that fraternal quality which, in recognising the Fatherhood of God, also
accepts as a necessary corollary the Brotherhood
of Man. The level reminds us that we are infinitesimal creatures in
God's grand scheme of the universe. It naturally follows that all human beings
must appear the same in His sight, in which sense we are all equal and subject
to the same infirmities and vicissitudes of life, seeking the same immortal
mansion and preparing to be judged by the same immutable laws.
The
equality of brethren in the lodge is that of the dignity and worth of the human
soul, which is the same for everyone regardless of man-made distinctions.
Masonic equality also recognises that one man may have greater potentialities
for service, for life or for reward than another, but it also denies that any
differences of that nature should preclude anyone from aspiring to any height,
however great. The level reminds us that we have all sprung from the same stock
and are all partakers of the same nature, so therefore we all share the same
hopes. Thus the level is an appropriate emblem of the Senior Warden, because
when the lodge is at labour all symbolically are under his immediate supervision
and therefore are on a common level of subordination.
Plumb
lines and plumb rules are implements used to determine a vertical plane and are
often called plummets in the scriptures. Each depends upon a line from which a
heavy plumb bob is suspended, so that when hanging freely the line is
perpendicular. These devices are among the oldest emblems and all have similar
symbolic interpretations. The plumb is a symbol of truth and rectitude of
conduct. It inculcates the integrity of life and that undeviating course of
moral uprightness that alone can distinguish a good and just man. When erecting
earthly structures the operative mason pays strict attention to the vertical, as
determined by the plumb, because any deviation from the upright contributes to
instability. In like manner the speculative freemason should be guided by the
unerring principles of right and truth that are symbolised by the plumb, neither
succumbing to the pressures of adversity nor yielding to the seductions of
prosperity. We read in Isaiah 28:17 of the New
English Bible that the Lord said:
"I will use justice as
a plumb-line and righteousness as a plummet; hail shall sweep away your refuge
of lies and flood-waters carry away your shelter".
Also,
in Amos 7:7-8 we read that
the Lord said to Amos:
"I am setting a plumb line to the heart of my people Israel; never
again will I pass them by."
It
is interesting to note that, from the most ancient times, many common words used
in everyday speech have had a symbolic meaning that is related to their
practical usage. Thus the Hebrew word tsedek
denotes rightness and straightness in a physical sense, whilst
signifying what is right and just in a moral sense. The Greek word orthos in the physical
sense means straight, erect or standing upright, whilst in the ethical sense it
signifies right, correct, proper and equitable. In Latin the word rectum
denotes something straight or upright and also someone of honesty and integrity.
In English the word right
has a similar duality. In the moral sense right denotes something
that is just, fair or equitable, while in the physical sense it indicates that
something is straight, or perpendicular. Likewise, when referring to the angle
that is produced when a line or a plane is placed in a position perpendicular to
another line or plane, like a vertical wall standing on a horizontal floor,
which interrelates the use of the plumb and the level, the angle of 90° thus
formed is called a right angle.
The plumb rule is appropriate as the jewel of the Junior Warden, because
it is emblematic of the upright conduct that should always distinguish the
brethren during their periods of refreshment, when symbolically they are under
the Junior Warden’s control.
The
pencil, like the quill in olden times and the pen in modern times, is a symbol
of learning and knowledge. Writing is
a visible expression of the human intellect that is used to convey our thoughts
and inner feelings. By association, the pencil is a symbol of the
law of God that is laid down for us in the sacred writings.
As the pencil is used by the skilful architect to delineate the intended
structure faithfully and accurately, so it should remind us of our
responsibilities as individuals, always bearing in mind that our thoughts, words
and actions are all recorded by the Most High who, having left us free to choose
our own course of action will assuredly hold us responsible for our behaviour.
The symbolism of the pencil is not restricted to freemasonry. From ancient times
the pen and the tablet have been symbols of the Holy Spirit and writing has
represented the divinely inspired scriptures. For example, hieroglyphs
originally were the sacred language of ancient Egypt.
This symbolism is typified in the records of the Sufis, the mystics of Islam,
who say of the writing of the Koran:
"God created under the Arsh (Throne) and of its light a great
'Tablet' in colour as a green beryl and a great 'Pen' in colour as an emerald
and filled with ink which was of white light. God cried 'Write O Pen!',
whereupon it moved over the Tablet and wrote thereon everything that should
happen till the Last Day and the Tablet was covered over with the writing. And
thereon was then inscribed the Divine original of the Glorious Koran."
In
this dissertation the Tablet
is the "table of the heart" on which the Pen,
which represents "Divine Expression", inscribes the "Law
of Wisdom" that expounds the involution and evolution of the human
soul, from its descent into the human being, its liberation from earthly
restraints and its ascent to reunite with God at the end of this earthly
existence.
The
Oxford English Dictionary describes the skirret
as an instrument for measuring land and aligning trenches, working on a
revolving centre pin. The origin of the word is said to be unknown and the first
recorded usage is shown as 1853. As the skirret was a species of
water turnip that was commonly cultivated in Europe in those days, it seems
likely that the name of the instrument was derived from the vegetable during the
measurement of farming lands. The large roll of line held on the rotating spool
at the upper end of the handle would appear very much like the vegetable. The
skirrets usually displayed in lodges of speculative craft freemasons are only
miniature representations of the operative freemason's implement. In operative
freemasonry the skirret is commonly used to mark out the ground for the intended
structure. In so doing the line is unreeled from the spool then chalked and
tautly stretched out, so that when it is pulled up off the ground at about
mid-length and released under tension, a straight chalk line is marked on the
ground. The skirret is also used with a fixed length of line to set out equal
distances from a centre or other given point on the foundation plan, which is
the way it is used when setting out the ground plan of a building from its
centre that has been established on the ground. The use of the measuring line in
ancient times has already been mentioned. Symbolically, the skirret represents
the sacred writings in which a straight and undeviating line of conduct is
clearly laid down for our guidance. Thus the symbolism of the skirret is closely
related to that of the pencil, which represents the sacred writings themselves.
The
compasses are used to describe a circle about a given centre point. The name of
the instrument comes from the Old French compasser, thence through the Middle English compas, both meaning to
measure and also proper
proportion. This also is the derivation of the old expression to
compass about,
which means to encircle or to
circumscribe an area. The compasses represent a circle, which is a
symbol of the all-embracing principle of Divine manifestation that is perfect
and entire, including everything and wanting nothing, having neither beginning
nor ending, timeless and absolute. Thus they are applied in Proverbs 8:27-29:
"When
he established the heavens I was there,
when he set a compass on
the face of the deep,
when he made firm the skies
above,
when he established the
fountains of the deep,
when he assigned the sea to
its limit,
so that the waters might
not transgress his command,
when he marked out the
foundations of the earth . . . ."
In
freemasonry the compasses or dividers are used to determine with accuracy and
precision the limits and proportions of the intended structure being designed
and the dimensions of the stones being shaped. The compasses symbolise the
unerring justice and impartiality of God, who has accurately defined for our
guidance the limits of good and evil and has prescribed our obedience thereto,
but has left us free to choose, in the certain knowledge that we will be
rewarded or punished accordingly as we have obeyed or disobeyed his Divine
commands. The compasses also remind us that we must keep our passions and
prejudices within due bounds.
